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    • Basic and Clinical Science Course - Excerpt
  • 2020–2021 BCSC Basic and Clinical Science Course™

    Go to Academy Store Learn more and Purchase.

    2 Fundamentals and Principles of Ophthalmology

    Part V: Ocular Pharmacology

    Chapter 16: Ocular Pharmacotherapeutics*

    Local Anesthetics

    Diagnostic Agents

    Solutions commonly used in the examination and diagnosis of external ocular diseases include fluorescein, 2%; lissamine green, 1%; and rose bengal staining as impregnated paper strips. The first 2 stains outline defects of the conjunctival and corneal epithelium, whereas rose bengal staining indicates abnormal devitalized epithelial cells. A stinging sensation with instillation of these eyedrops is common.

    Rose bengal has significant antiviral activity. Therefore, diagnostic use of rose bengal before viral culture may preclude a positive result, and its use to grade keratitis in the study of new antiviral drugs is discouraged.

    For the study of retinal and choroidal circulation as well as abnormalities in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), sodium fluorescein solution in a concentration of 5%, 10%, or 25% is injected intravenously. Fundus fluorescein angiography is helpful in diagnosing various vascular diseases and neoplastic disorders. Adverse effects range from localized skin reactions to hypersensitivity and allergic reactions. The most common adverse effect is nausea, occurring in up to 10% of patients.

    Indocyanine green (ICG), a tricarbocyanine dye, is approved for the study of choroidal vasculature in a variety of choroidal and retinal disorders. ICG angiography is particularly helpful in identifying and delineating poorly defined choroidal neovascular membranes in age-related macular degeneration (AMD). ICG angiography can also be used to evaluate patients with anterior scleritis. Typically, 25 mg of dye is injected as an intravenous solution. ICG is mildly toxic; adverse effects include localized skin reactions, sore throat, and hot flushes. Individual cases of severe adverse effects, such as anaphylactic shock, hypotension, tachycardia, dyspnea, and urticaria, have been reported.

    ICG and trypan blue dye are useful for delineating the anterior capsule during phacoemulsification of mature cataracts. Although the FDA has approved trypan blue as an anterior capsule stain during surgery, administration of ICG for this purpose constitutes an off-label use.

    ICG, trypan blue, brilliant blue G (BBG), and triamcinolone acetonide are also utilized to facilitate internal membrane peeling in macular-hole repair, although their use in this way is off-label. The preservative-free formulation of triamcinolone acetonide is FDA approved for intraoperative visualization of the vitreous. Despite considerable literature raising concerns about the toxicity of ICG dye in the retina and RPE, good surgical and visual results have been reported. The toxicity of ICG on cultured RPE cells may be related to the hypoosmolarity of the solvent. Short exposure of trypan blue has not had a toxic effect on cultured RPE cells. However, trypan blue does not appear to stain the internal limiting membrane as effectively as ICG does. Exposure of the retina to the dye and pooling at the macular hole should be minimized to reduce concerns about toxicity to the retina.

    • Haritoglou C, Gandorfer A, Gass CA, Schaumberger M, Ulbig MW, Kampik A. The effect of indocyanine-green on functional outcome of macular pucker surgery. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;135(3):328–337.

    • Korb DR, Herman JP, Finnemore VM, Exford JM, Blackie CA. An evaluation of the efficacy of fluorescein, rose bengal, lissamine green, and a new dye mixture for ocular surface staining. Eye Contact Lens. 2008;34(1):61–64.

    • Saini JS, Jain AK, Sukhija J, Gupta P, Saroha V. Anterior and posterior capsulorhexis in pediatric cataract surgery with or without trypan blue dye: randomized prospective clinical study. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2003;29(9):1733–1737.

    • Shimada H, Nakashizuka H, Hattori T, Mori R, Mizutani Y, Yuzawa M. Double staining with brilliant blue G and double peeling for epiretinal membranes. Ophthalmology. 2009; 116(7):1370–1376.

    • Werner L, Pandey SK, Escobar-Gomez M, Hoddinott DS, Apple DJ. Dye-enhanced cataract surgery, part 2: learning critical steps of phacoemulsification. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2000;26(7):1060–1065.

    Excerpted from BCSC 2020-2021 series: Section 2 - Fundamentals and Principles of Ophthalmology. For more information and to purchase the entire series, please visit https://www.aao.org/bcsc.

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    2022-2023 Basic and Clinical Science Course, Complete Print Set
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    2022-2023 Basic and Clinical Science Course, Section 01: Update on General Medicine
    2022-2023 Basic and Clinical Science Course, Section 02: Fundamentals and Principles of Ophthalmology
    2022-2023 Basic and Clinical Science Course, Section 03: Clinical Optics and Vision Rehabilitation
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    2022-2023 Basic and Clinical Science Course, Section 06: Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus
    2022-2023 Basic and Clinical Science Course, Section 07: Oculofacial Plastic and Orbital Surgery
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